Which statement best captures a contrast between referentialism and Meyer's expectancy theory?

Which statement best captures a contrast between referentialism and Meyer's expectancy theory?

• A. Referentialism emphasizes external associations; Meyer's theory emphasizes expectation fulfillment/violation
• B. Referentialism emphasizes automatic arousal; Meyer's theory emphasizes cognitive labeling
• C. Referentialism and Meyer's theory are identical in mechanism
• D. Referentialism denies any emotional link to music

Answer: (A)

The main idea here is how music moves our emotions: referentialism says the emotional pull comes from connections to things outside the music—memories, stories, cultural meanings—so emotions arise from external associations. Meyer's expectancy theory, on the other hand, centers on internal prediction: listeners form expectations about what will come next in the music, and emotions come from whether those expectations are fulfilled or violated. So the best contrast is external associations versus prediction-based processing. For example, a familiar tune might trigger a strong emotional memory even if the music itself doesn’t create much surprise; whereas a sequence that violates what you expected can produce a strong emotional reaction due to the surprise itself.

The main idea here is how music moves our emotions: referentialism says the emotional pull comes from connections to things outside the music—memories, stories, cultural meanings—so emotions arise from external associations. Meyer's expectancy theory, on the other hand, centers on internal prediction: listeners form expectations about what will come next in the music, and emotions come from whether those expectations are fulfilled or violated. So the best contrast is external associations versus prediction-based processing. For example, a familiar tune might trigger a strong emotional memory even if the music itself doesn’t create much surprise; whereas a sequence that violates what you expected can produce a strong emotional reaction due to the surprise itself.